Recent Changes

Thursday, August 18

  1. page 3.7 Introduction to Macro Goals and Problems edited Internal Macroeconomic Goals (i) Sustainable Economic Growth Economic Growth - Expansion of inc…
    Internal Macroeconomic Goals
    (i) Sustainable Economic Growth
    Economic Growth
    - Expansion of increase in an economy's level of output or Gross Domestic product (GDP) over time
    Types:
    a) Actual Economic Growth
    - Annual percentage increase in national output
    - Movement within PPC
    b) Potential Economic Growth
    - Annual percentage increase in an economy's capacity to produce
    - Shifting of PPC
    Indicators:
    a) Real GDP growth
    b) Real GNP growth
    Problem: Negative Economic Growth
    - Reduction in economic activities of an economy
    - Measure in period of two quarters
    Solution:
    - Conducive environment to attract foreign investment to foster economic growth
    - Maintaining sound infrastructure to provide ease for economic activities
    - Investing heavily on education to train workers
    (ii) Full Employment
    Full employment
    - Condition of an economy, where all or nearly all people, of working age, are willing and able to work at the prevailing wages and working condition
    Indicator:
    Unemployment rate
    Problem: Unemployment or underemployment
    - Number of people of working age who are without work, but they are willing and able to take up employment
    - Types: (a) Structural Unemployment
    - Arises when workers do not have the necessary skills that employers require in growing industries
    (b) Frictional Unemployment
    - Arises when workers who are retrenched, or who have resigned or who are joining the labour market but cannot find jobs immediately
    (ca)) Cyclical Unemployment
    - Arises from a lack of demand for goods and services during an economy recession
    Solution:
    - Increasing public investment
    - Reducing taxes during recession
    - Provide necessary skills for labour force
    (iii) Price Stability
    Price Stability
    - Minimum change in overall prices of final goods and service
    - Minimum change in general price level
    Indicators:
    - Consumer Price Index
    Problem: Inflation
    - Sustained increase in general price level in an economy
    - Types: (a) Demand Pull
    - Too much money chasing too few goods
    (b) Cost Push
    - Rising Cost of Production
    Solution:
    - Varying interest rate
    - Varying exchange rate
    - National Wave council (Singapore)
    - Foreign Labour Migration Policies (Singapore)
    (IV) Balance of Payment Equilibrium
    Balance of Payment
    - Summarised statement of monetary transactions between residents of one country and the rest of the world during a specific period of time
    Type of BOP account:
    a) Current Account
    - Flow of goods and services
    - Flow of income in and out of country
    b) Financial Account
    - Cross-border purchases and sales of assets
    - Net Direct Investment etc
    c) Capital Account
    - Debt forgiveness
    - Acquisition and disposal of non-financial assets
    Types of BOP equilibrium
    a) BOP surplus
    - Export > Import
    b) BOP deficit
    - Import > Export
    Problem: BOP deficit
    - leads to increase in unemployment
    Solution:
    - Imposing tariffs
    - Depreciation of currency

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Tuesday, August 16

  1. page 3.2 Demand edited Definition - Different quantities of a product consumers are willing and able to buy at each poss…
    Definition
    - Different quantities of a product consumers are willing and able to buy at each possible price during a given period of time, ceteris paribus
    - Desire backed by purchasing power
    Demand Curve
    {demand_curve.gif}
    - Always negative due to Law of Demand
    - Law of Demand states that an inverse relationship exist between price of a good and the quantity demanded of the good, ceteris paribus
    Movement and Shifts in Demand Curve
    Movement in Demand Curve
    - Change in quantity demanded arising solely from change in price of good, ceteris paribus
    Shifts in Demand Curve
    - Changes in demand caused by several non-price determinants
    - Factors:
    a) P ( Change in Price of Related Good)
    (i) Substitute
    - Alternatives that satisfy same consumer wants
    - When price of A decrease, demand of A increase, thus demand of B decrease
    (ii) Complements
    - Good jointly demanded to provide satisfaction
    - When price of A decrease, demand of A increase, thus demand of B increase too
    b) T ( Change in Taste and Preferences)
    (i) Fashion or Fad
    - Demand usually high for fashionable goods
    (ii) Advertising
    - Effective advertising creates demand/wants
    (iii) Government Policies
    - Taxes and Incentives
    (iv) Seasons, Festivals and Weathers
    c) I ( Change in consumer income)
    - Affordability or ability of consumers to buy good
    (i) Normal Good
    - Demand for the good is positively related to change in income
    (ii) Inferior Good
    - Demand for the good is negatively related to change in income
    - However, concept of normal and inferior good differs for people
    d) D ( Change in Demographics)
    (i) Size
    - Larger the population size, larger the potential demand
    - But potential demand also influenced by purchasing power of population
    (ii) Age/Sex
    - Taste and preferences of consumers influenced by composition of population
    e) E ( Change in consumers' expectations)
    (i) Change in expected income
    - Rise in pay = more willing to spend
    - Drop in pay = less willing to spend
    (ii) Change in expected price
    - Price rise in future, demand increase now
    - Price drop in future, demand decrease now
    (iii) Change in speculative demand
    - Purchase of goods meant for profit at a later time

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Monday, August 15

  1. page 2.2 Atomic Structure and Physical Periodicity edited ... - Angle of Deflection = k ( Charge / Mass) Atomic Number, Mass Number and Isotopes - Xb - …
    ...
    - Angle of Deflection = k ( Charge / Mass)
    Atomic Number, Mass Number and Isotopes
    - Xb
    - Xa
    Atomic
    {atomic.jpg}
    Atomic
    number, bZ
    - Number of protons
    - Determines Chemical identity
    Mass number, aA
    - Total number of protons and neutrons
    Isotopes
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  2. file atomic.jpg uploaded
  3. file atomic.jpg uploaded
  4. page 2.2 Atomic Structure and Physical Periodicity edited ... - Angle of Deflection = k ( Charge / Mass) Atomic Number, Mass Number and Isotopes - Xab X…
    ...
    - Angle of Deflection = k ( Charge / Mass)
    Atomic Number, Mass Number and Isotopes
    - XabXb
    - Xa

    Atomic number, b
    - Number of protons
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  5. page 2.2 Atomic Structure and Physical Periodicity edited ... (ii) Rule 2 : Hund's Rule of Multiplicity - Each orbital must be singly occupied before elect…
    ...
    (ii) Rule 2 : Hund's Rule of Multiplicity
    - Each orbital must be singly occupied before electrons are paired
    ...
    Expulsion Principle
    - Electrons within the same orbital has to have opposite direction, to reduce inter-electronic repulsion
    Physical Periodicity
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  6. page 2.2 Atomic Structure and Physical Periodicity edited Atoms and Properties of Subatomic particles Atom - Smallest component of an element having the c…
    Atoms and Properties of Subatomic particles
    Atom
    - Smallest component of an element having the chemical properties of the element
    - Made up of electron, proton and neutron
    Subatomic Particles
    Property
    Proton
    Electron
    Neutron
    Relative Charge
    +1
    -1
    0
    Relative Mass
    1
    1/1836
    1
    - Angle of Deflection = k ( Charge / Mass)
    Atomic Number, Mass Number and Isotopes
    - Xab
    Atomic number, b
    - Number of protons
    - Determines Chemical identity
    Mass number, a
    - Total number of protons and neutrons
    Isotopes
    - atoms with same number of electrons but different number of neutrons
    Arrangement of Electrons
    - The Principal Quantum Number, n, describes the minimum energy level of an electron and the size of an atomic orbital
    - Maximum number of electrons that can occupy the orbitals = 2n2
    - Each principal quantum shell can be subdivided into subshells
    Principal Quantum Shell
    Number of Subshell
    Type of Subshell
    Notation for Subshell
    1
    1
    s
    1s
    2
    2
    s,p
    2s,2p
    3
    3
    s,p,d
    3s,3p,3d
    4
    4
    s,p,d,f
    4s,4p,4d,4f
    Atomic Orbitals
    - Defined as region of space with a 90% probability of finding an electron
    - Each S subshell only has one s orbital
    {sorbital.gif}
    - Each P subshell has 3 p orbital
    {porbital.gif}
    Electronic Configuration
    (i) Rule 1 : ' Building-Up' Principle
    {OrbitalEnergies.gif}
    (ii) Rule 2 : Hund's Rule of Multiplicity
    - Each orbital must be singly occupied before electrons are paired
    (iii) Rule 3 : Pauli's Expulsion Principle
    - Electrons within the same orbital has to have opposite direction, to reduce inter-electronic repulsion
    Physical Periodicity
    Effective Nuclear Charge, Zeff
    - Net Nuclear Charge experienced by an outer electron
    - Zeff = Z - S , where Z is nuclear charge and S is shielding effect
    Changes in Zeff
    (i) Down the group
    - Nuclear charge increase as no. of protons increase
    - Shielding effect increase as no. of orbitals increase
    - Zeff relatively the same
    (ii) Across period
    - Nuclear charge increase as no. of protons increase
    - Shielding effect constant as it is the same orbital
    - Zeff increase
    - Zeff increase = Electrostatic Forces of Attraction Increase = Ionization Energy Increase / Atomic Radius Decrease
    - Higher nuclear charge = smaller atomic radius
    - Higher shielding effect = larger atomic radius
    Trend in Atomic Radius
    (i) Across the period
    - As Zeff increase, EOFA increase and Ar decrease
    (ii) Down the group
    - No. of Quantum Shells increase, Ar increase
    Trend in Ionic Radius
    (i) Special:
    - As Anion has one more quantum shell than cations, Ar of Cations < Ar of Anions
    Ionization Energy
    - nth Ionization energy is the energy required to remove 1 mole of electrons from 1 moles of gaseous (n-1) positive ions to form1 moles of gaseous ions with n+ charge
    Factors that affect IE
    (i) Nuclear Charge, Z
    - Increase in nuclear charge = Increase in EOFA = Increase in IE
    (ii) Size of atoms
    - Ar decrease = Increase in EOFA = Increase in IE
    IE graph
    - IE1 < IE2 < IE3
    - As more electrons are removed, there are more and more protons compared to electrons. Therefore EOFA increase and IE has to increase
    - Jumps in IE represents change in quantum shell
    Trends of IE
    (i) Down the group
    - No. of Quantum Shell Increase = Ar increase = EOFA decrease = IE decrease
    (ii) Across the period
    - Increase in no. of protons = increase in nuclear charge = Increase in EOFA = Increase in IE
    (iii) Anomalies
    a) Group 2 and 3
    - Different subshell; Group 2 is S subshell and Group 3 is P subshell
    b) Group 5 and 6
    - Electrons in Grp 5 all unpaired while there is a paired electron in Grp 6, causing interelectronic repulsion, lowering IE for Group 6

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